{"id":121956,"date":"2017-10-27T00:02:00","date_gmt":"2017-10-26T22:02:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.ocean4future.org\/savetheocean\/?p=121956"},"modified":"2025-10-18T21:15:28","modified_gmt":"2025-10-18T19:15:28","slug":"identifying-the-consequences-of-ocean-sprawl-for-sedimentary-habitats-part-ii","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.ocean4future.org\/savetheocean\/archives\/121956","title":{"rendered":"Identifying the consequences of ocean sprawl for sedimentary habitats – part II"},"content":{"rendered":"tempo di lettura: <\/span> 14<\/span> minuti<\/span><\/span>

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\nARGOMENTO: ECOLOGIA<\/span><\/strong>
\nPERIODO: XXI SECOLO<\/span><\/strong>
\nAREA: DIDATTICA<\/span><\/strong>
\nparole chiave: Sprawl<\/p>\n

Under a Creative Commons\u00a0license<\/a>\u00a0 open access<\/strong><\/p>\n

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3. Factors influencing the direction and magnitude of impacts<\/span><\/strong><\/span>
\nThe way in which artificial structures modify sedimentary communities depends on their design and spatial configuration, the characteristics of the abiotic and biotic environment in which they are placed, and the scale of the impact, including area affected and duration (Airoldi et al., 2005, Martin et al., 2005). Unfortunately, many scientific-based assessments often neglect these complex interactions and scaling issues, which limits our current capability to predict the impacts of future developments (Loke et al., 2015). Studies to date have found tremendous variation in the patterns and trends they have observed in sedimentary habitats where artificial structures have been placed. This is likely due at least in part to inherent variation in the direction and magnitude of impacts from artificial structures, both over space and time, and across multiple spatial scales. For each of the effects documented above, there are a number of factors that likely influence variation in observed patterns in the field and are worth considering when seeking to identify generalizable trends.
\nPlacement loss (Griggs, 2005; Section 2.1), by definition, increases with the aerial extent of foundations constructed in sedimentary habitat, and may be especially large in coastal areas where construction of structures is accompanied by backfill to reclaim land. In coastal environments, losses can be amplified by passive erosion, which results from structures inhibiting natural cycles of shoreline retreat (Griggs, 2005). The extent of such passive erosion can depend on the tidal elevation at which a defense structure is built, as well as whether a shoreline is presently in an accretive or erosive state (Archetti and Romagnoli, 2011, Lin and Wu, 2014). Active erosion of sediment adjacent to structures, through wave reflection, scouring, and \u2018end effects\u2019 (Griggs, 2005) can also affect the magnitude of habitat loss. The effects are greatest where sand input is low and wave energy high (Lin and Wu, 2014, Miles et al., 2001). They are also dependent on the extent to which structures are designed to absorb versus reflect wave energy (e.g. hollow seabed versus solid concrete seawall designs) (Hettiarachchi and Mirihagalla, 1998, das Neves et al., 2015, Zanuttigh et al., 2005).<\/p>\n

Impacts of artificial structures on sediment communities also vary spatially according to the extent to which they modify the abiotic and biotic conditions and local processes that control soft-sediment community assembly (Airoldi et al., 2005, Martin et al., 2005). The position (i.e. onshore vs offshore), orientation (i.e. perpendicular or parallel to shorelines), permeability (solid versus rock wall), dimensions and spacing of structures are all factors that could influence the extent to which structures intercept longshore drift, tidal and other currents, which in turn shape sedimentary communities by determining sediment, larval and resource (e.g. wrack and organic matter) transport and deposition (Martin et al., 2005, Bishop et al., 2017). For example, Shyue and Yang (2002) found that the area of scour surrounding subtidal artificial reefs was heavily influenced by the structure’s height, although differences in ambient flow between locations were also important (Shyue and Yang, 2002). The placement of seawalls with respect to tidal height and local wave energy are important factors determining the extent of scour and sediment coarsening in intertidal environments (Weigel, 2002). As another example, the impacts of oil rigs on adjacent sediment communities could be mitigated at deeper waters because of higher environmental stability and greater potential of dilution and dispersion of pollutants (Burns et al., 1999, Ellis et al., 1996). Terlizzi et al. (2008), however, reported an opposite trend, possibly because platforms at deeper sites are taller, therefore leaching greater amounts of contaminants or providing more surface area for growth of fouling invertebrates which slough off to influence sedimentary communities (Goddard and Love, 2010, Love et al., 1999, Terlizzi et al., 2008).
\nThe spatial arrangement and isolation of artificial structures could affect sedimentary environments both directly, by affecting patterns of sediment deposition, and indirectly, by affecting the capability of artificial reefs to attract grazing and predatory fish communities. For example, on a Brazilian artificial reef, the proximity of reef balls to one another influenced their effect on organic and fine sediment inputs to adjacent habitat (Zalmon et al., 2014), with inputs greatest at a larger spacing. Overall, the large-scale effects of multiple structures (such as offshore structures) may differ from their local effects. For example, parks of offshore wind farms can act as a partial blockage of the overall current field: the blocked water volume is forced around the park, which leads to a decrease in the flow inside the park and an increase in flow velocities on the sides of the park (Airoldi et al., 2016). These blockages depend on the distance between piles (typically 600 to 1200 m), the diameter of the piles (6\u201310 m), the overall number of wind turbines in the park and the lay-out of the farm.
\nThe sediment grain size and hydrodynamic regime can also determine the extension and severity of some of the impacts. For example, the effects of crab-tiles used to attract crabs for harvest depend on the grain size of the sediments where they are placed (Sheehan et al., 2010a). Similarly, the impacts from the sediment spills due to dredging for foundation and cable trenches of offshore activities will primarily be of local nature in low-current environments, while in high-current environments far-field impacts of lower intensity will prevail, due to advection and dilution (Airoldi et al., 2016). Further, the impacts of structures on sediments may vary spatially according to the processes occurring at the time of their construction, for example fouling community colonization (Underwood and Anderson, 1994) which in turn determines resource subsidies to adjacent sedimentary habitats (Airoldi et al., 2010, Goddard and Love, 2010, Love et al., 1999).
\nThe effect of structures on sediment communities may also be expected to vary according to the diversity and identity of soft sediment communities at disturbed sites (Martin et al., 2005). For example, the diverse communities of dissipative beaches are more susceptible to the effect of structures than the more depauperate assemblages of exposed sandy beaches (Martin et al., 2005). Oil and gas rigs or artificial reefs that exclude fishing vessels may have large positive effects on biodiversity by removing or alleviating dredge or trawling disturbance to ecosystem engineers such as clams, tube worms, or seagrasses (Gonz\u00e1lez-Correa et al., 2005, Pearce et al., 2014). Conversely, if artificial structures have a negative effect on ecosystem engineers (e.g. Lemasson et al., 2017, Teagle et al., 2017).
\nNot only do the effects of structures vary spatially according to their abiotic and biotic context, but they may also vary temporally. Effects of artificial structures on sediment communities may strengthen or weaken with time since their construction. For example, because the development of fouling communities on structures takes time (Underwood and Anderson, 1994), indirect effects on sediment communities resulting from sloughing of algae or shell (Airoldi et al., 2010, Goddard and Love, 2010, Love et al., 1999) or fouling communities depositing feces (Maar et al., 2009), may increase with time since construction. Conversely, pulse impacts associated with the construction phase, such as those resulting from turbidity plumes or construction noise deterring benthic predators (Slabbekoorn et al., 2010) may weaken over time (Jaramillo, 2012). The effect of structures on sediment communities may also vary temporally according to natural variation in the strength of the abiotic and biotic processes they disrupt. For example, artificial reefs in Brazil reduce current velocities predominantly during months of high flow from the Paraiba do Sul River (Machado et al., 2013) and, conceivably, enhancement of predator foraging patterns around artificial structures may vary seasonally according to the biology of species.<\/p>\n

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rocce sedimentarie terrigene Ciottoli<\/span><\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

4. Approaches employed in past studies<\/strong><\/span>
\nThe effects of artificial structures on soft sediment ecosystems can currently be considered based on three types of information. Firstly, inferential studies that examine the response of soft sediment organisms to environmental changes associated with artificial structures (e.g. shading, modification of sediment grain size and so forth) provide proximal insights, but are primarily helpful for generating hypotheses. Secondly, surveys that examine how environmental variables and sediment communities vary spatially in the areas with and without artificial structures can lend further proximal information, but are limited by inherent spatial variation in sedimentary ecosystems and confounding variables. Lastly, Before\/After and Control\/Impact (BACI) designs test for causal effects of structure construction on sedimentary systems.
\nBACI designs are recognized as a robust approach for documenting environmental impacts (Hilborn and Walters, 1981, Underwood, 1994), as they test for causality (Underwood and Peterson, 1988). If effectively implemented, these designs provide the advantage of controlling for temporal changes that are confounded with the introduction of an artificial structure, as well as site-specific differences that are unrelated to structure introduction. Reference sites used in such designs must be selected carefully to ensure they are sufficiently similar to those where an artificial structure will be introduced without being in range of the structure’s effects (Stewart-Oaten et al., 1986). In order to detect changes, data collection in BACI-type studies must also continue over a period of time that coincides with the temporal scale of the effects being measured (Stewart-Oaten et al., 1986). These limitations commonly make BACI-designs unfeasible, and the approach has been used only rarely as a means of characterizing the effects of artificial structures on soft sediment ecosystems (Jaramillo et al., 2002).
\nMost studies have instead sought to characterize patterns of spatial variation in soft sediment communities that correlate with the presence of or the distance from an existing artificial structure (Ambrose and Anderson, 1990, Barros et al., 2001, Davis et al., 1982). Such studies have many limitations. Sites where artificial structures are constructed are also usually non-randomly selected, so it is likely that there are pre-existing differences between sites with and without structures that are unrelated to the construction or presence of the structures themselves. Even within a single site, it is difficult to discern patterns associated with artificial structures in surrounding sediments due to the inherent patchiness of soft sediment communities over time and space (Morrisey et al., 1992a, Morrisey et al., 1992b). Observationally derived differences in community structure do not therefore demonstrate causation, nor do they allow for conclusions regarding the mechanisms that are behind observed differences.
\nMany of the observational studies we reviewed emphasized specific physical, chemical, or biotic factors as the potential mechanism driving community and species distribution patterns observed in the field. However, there remains a strong need for research that tests the importance of multiple mechanistic processes associated with artificial structures on soft sediment ecosystem response. In addition, most studies focused on relatively local impacts of artificial structures on immediately surrounding soft sediments. Few studies have considered the cumulative impacts of multiple structures on sediments at larger spatial scales. There may be non-linear effects of adding more artificial structures to a seascape, such as a tipping point beyond which there is no longer sufficient sedimentary substrate to support particular groups of organisms, or beyond which the environment is no longer fit for habitation. Studies on the cumulative impacts of structures at the landscape scale are urgently needed as marine urbanization accelerates (Dafforn et al., 2015, Johnston et al., 2015).<\/p>\n

5. Research gaps and future directions<\/strong><\/span>
\nAs artificial structures extend across an increasingly large proportion of sedimentary seascapes (Airoldi and Beck, 2007), it is important that we improve our understanding of impacts on sedimentary ecosystem structure and function so that we can manage ocean sprawl in more ecologically sustainable ways. This will require developing and implementing rigorous monitoring programs, expanding academic research to encompass a wider breadth of testable hypotheses relating to artificial structure introduction, and improving the methodology in scientific studies so that the hypotheses in question are addressed more effectively (Dafforn et al., 2015).<\/p>\n

5.1. Monitoring<\/span><\/strong><\/span>
\nArtificial structures can affect the ability of habitats and species to deliver ecosystem services that have societal benefits (Atkins et al., 2011). Regulatory frameworks can help to ensure that the style and scale of artificial structures are sustainable and do not risk the provision of ecosystem services (Mee et al., 2008). Such frameworks are only currently in place in certain areas of the world (e.g. EU Habitats Directive). Monitoring allows for regulatory bodies, where active, to evaluate the changes in assemblages or communities as a result of an intervention, such as building a seawall (Hiscock, 1998). Details about the techniques used to obtain monitoring data are not discussed here, as there are many other excellent sources (Kingsford and Battershill, 2000, McIntyre and Eleftheriou, 2005). However, several important considerations are worth emphasizing in relation to the design of monitoring studies.
\n\u2018Before\u2019 and \u2018after\u2019 samples are essential in order to detect any modifications in the natural patterns in assemblages as a result of introducing an artificial structure. Environmental consequences of an intervention are actually variations in space and time of ecological processes which control the structure of species assemblages (Green, 1979, Underwood, 1992). Impacts can therefore be detected as changes in the absolute or relative abundances of taxa, changes in the variance of these abundance metrics, or changes in measured ecological processes (Underwood, 1992). These changes need to be separated from natural variation through time (at a variety of scales) at the sites sampled (Underwood, 1992). In estuarine systems particularly, samples taken at the same site a few months, or even a week apart can differ significantly (Glasby, 1997, Morrisey et al., 1992a).
\nIt is also necessary to compare potentially impacted sites with control\/reference sites not subject to the impact (Stewart-Oaten et al., 1986). Any difference between a single reference site and the potentially impacted site may not be due to the impact because assemblages are naturally variable in space. To overcome confounding due to this natural variation, it is desirable to have replicated reference and impacted locations (Underwood, 1989). In most cases, however, only one impacted site exists. In such cases, patterns in the biota of the potentially impacted site are compared with the average of replicated reference sites to adequately detect the impact. This can be done using asymmetrical ANOVA in Beyond-BACI designs (Underwood, 1992). Information about the spatial scale of the impact is also necessary to understand and detect impacts (Bishop et al., 2002). Spatially nested designs can enable impacts to be assessed at multiple spatial scales.
\nAdditionally, in many calls from management agencies for scientific information, there are requests for baseline monitoring in the belief that such monitoring can inform the design of subsequent monitoring efforts (Field et al., 2007). This can only be true in two sets of circumstances. The first is that the baseline sampling design is exactly the same as the subsequent monitoring as this can enable the direct comparison of previous and subsequent data to allow a test of the time x treatment interaction (Stewart-Oaten et al., 1986, Underwood, 1992). The second is where precision estimates and analysis outputs can be used to inform subsequent sample designs. In an example from marine conservation, Coleman et al. (2013) used pilot or baseline sample data to estimate the number of samples needed to retain the null hypothesis of no impact with confidence (Coleman et al., 2013); this was the number of samples used for subsequent monitoring. Only by explicitly connecting the baseline data with the analytical frameworks necessary to test the hypotheses of effects can we move beyond the limitations that exist in some monitoring data of the past (Burt, 1994) to generate reliable data on the effects of artificial structures on sedimentary assemblages.
\nFinally, monitoring of the impacts related to artificial structures are often considered on a case by case basis and have ignored the potential cumulative impact on sedimentary habitats (Halpern et al., 2008). Future impact assessment of artificial structures on sedimentary habitats and assemblages would be more appropriate if multiple development \u201cimpacts\u201d were monitored as part of an integrated study, with predetermined comparable metrics, that are able to contextualize measured effects at ecosystem-relevant scales.<\/p>\n

5.2. Future research directions<\/span><\/strong><\/span>
\nThere remain many unanswered questions as artificial structures rapidly proliferate in sedimentary environments. Sedimentary ecosystems are dynamic, complex, and influenced by processes and feedbacks that remain poorly understood, and the introduction of artificial structures may cause complex patterns that are difficult to identify in the field, particularly when sampling regimes are temporally and spatially limited. Given the profusion of uncertainties surrounding sedimentary ecosystem dynamics in general, improving our understanding of the effects of artificial structures will require strategic and careful selection of research objectives.
\nWe suggest several areas of study that would be particularly helpful for advancing current knowledge. Much of our understanding of the mechanisms by which structures modify sediment communities is inferential. There is therefore need for more studies that evaluate mechanism directly. This is particularly important if we hope to design structures in such a way that they have minimal impacts on sediment communities and in some instances provide benefits (i.e. ecoengineering, Loke et al., 2017-inthisissue). Additionally, most studies to date have quantified changes in the abundance or richness of macroinvertebrates, and future studies are needed to examine the effects on key biological parameters, such as reproduction and growth, as well as key ecological processes, such as trophic transfer. Past studies have primarily focused on small scale effects, and there is great need for studies that improve our understanding of impacts across large spatial scales (Dethier and Schoch, 2005, Thrush et al., 1994), including alterations to connectivity (Bishop et al., 2017-inthisissue) and regional-scale cumulative changes (Duarte et al., 2003) as artificial structures proliferate across an increasingly large proportion of sedimentary habitats. Along these same lines, work that characterizes the current spatial extent of artificial structures and the scale of their effects on sedimentary ecosystems would represent a valuable contribution.
\nCertain taxonomic groups within sedimentary ecosystems have also been poorly represented in research to date. In particular, microbes in soft sediments likely have a central role in the functioning of ecosystems as they form the basal elements of food webs, affect sediment chemistry, and restrict nutrient availability (Gadd and Griffiths, 1977). Although there is no direct evidence of impacts of artificial structures on these communities at present, one study has shown that biofilms in natural habitats significantly differ from those on artificial structures (seawalls; Tan et al., 2015). Much work is needed to evaluate whether ocean sprawl affects the functionality of sediments via their effects on the microbiota associated with artificial structures.
\nLastly, there is tremendous need for work that clarifies the link between ecosystem structure and function in sedimentary environments. Marine sediment ecosystems provide various important services, such as mediating global carbon, nitrogen and sulphur cycles, influencing water clarity, burying, transporting and metabolizing pollutants and stabilizing and transporting sediments (Snelgrove, 1997). These services are dependent on the ecological functions of the species comprising sedimentary communities, as well as the abiotic environment (Bulleri and Chapman, 2015, Johnston and Mayer-Pinto, 2015, Lenihan and Micheli, 2001, Lohrer et al., 2004). Present knowledge gaps preclude any comprehensive or quantitative evaluation of the sedimentary ecosystem functions that are most impacted by artificial structures. Throughout this paper, we have presented hypotheses linking observed effects from structures with potential implications for ecosystem function. Such hypotheses need to be tested directly and rigorously, with direct measurement of functional properties, to be useful in any further capacity. Ultimately, it is knowledge of this link between ecosystem structure and function, and the subsequent connection between functioning and ecosystem services that will allow us to understand the effects of artificial structure proliferation on human populations and societies more broadly.<\/p>\n

6. Conclusions<\/span><\/strong><\/span>
\nMost research to date on sediment responses to artificial structures has highlighted local patterns associated with specific structure types (Ambrose and Anderson, 1990, Barros et al., 2001, Davis et al., 1982, Maar et al., 2009, Martin et al., 2005). This review compiled findings across structures, regions, and temporal and spatial scales to create a synthesis of the current knowledge about how ocean sprawl impacts on soft sediment ecosystems. The primary ways that artificial structures modify soft sediments, directly and indirectly, include placement loss, an altered sensory environment, hydrodynamic changes, organic enrichment, toxic contamination, and changes to species interactions and community dynamics. These changes have significant consequences for the diversity and structure of soft sediment communities, affecting, in turn, ecosystem functioning and services provided to humans. However, to date, empirical studies on the effect of structures on ecosystem functioning have been lacking. Relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in sedimentary environments are complex (Loreau et al., 2001, Naeem et al., 2009, Schmitz et al., 2015), and in order to accurately predict the effects of disturbances on functions and services, direct measures of functioning are necessary (Johnston et al., 2015). Moreover, little is known about the mechanisms driving these impacts or their scale. Consequently, at this point it is only possible to hypothesize the large-scale functional consequences that may arise from structural changes in the assemblages caused by artificial structures and the mechanisms behind them. This knowledge can only be achieved through rigorous monitoring programs based on explicit experimental structures alongside more studies that address the issue of cumulative impacts from multiple structures and assess the collective impacts of ocean sprawl, rather than just considering structures individually. Reviews such as this one and Bishop et al. (2017-inthisissue) will be complemented and progressed by the collection of more primary data from studies that incorporate neglected measures of ecosystem functioning and large-scale impacts. This knowledge will guide the design and management of ocean sprawl. With the predicted increase of construction in the ocean, there is a pressing need for this information to inform solutions-based research that can mitigate the impacts on soft sediments and protect this crucial habitat.<\/p>\n

Acknowledgements<\/span><\/strong><\/span>
\nHeery was funded by the National Science Foundation through University of Washington’s Integrative Graduate Education and Research Traineeship (NSF DGE-1068839). Bishop and Critchley received support from the NSW Office of Environment and Heritage through the Coastal Processes and Responses Node of the NSW Adaptation Hub. Dafforn, Johnston, Mayer-Pinto, and Bugnot were supported by an ARC Linkage Grant (LP140100753) awarded to Dafforn & Johnston. This is SIMS publication number 182. Airoldi was supported from projects MERMAID (EU FP7 \u2013 Ocean \u2013 2011 – 288710) and \u201cTETRIS – Observing, modelling and Testing synergies and TRade-offs for the adaptive management of multiple Impacts in coastal Systems\u201d (PRIN 2011, Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research). Komyakova received support from Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment awarded by Equity Trustees. Strain was supported by The Ian Potter Foundation and The New South Wales Government Office of Science and Research. Naylor was funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) EP\/N508792\/1. We are grateful to Louise Firth, for introducing and assembling the co-authors on this paper at the 2015 Aquatic Biodiversity and Ecosystems Conference in Liverpool, UK. [SES]
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References see original article at LINK<\/a><\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n

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tempo di lettura: <\/span> 14<\/span> minuti<\/span><\/span>. . ARGOMENTO: ECOLOGIA PERIODO: XXI SECOLO AREA: DIDATTICA parole chiave: Sprawl Under a Creative Commons\u00a0license\u00a0 open access Authors : 3. 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